Global EV Outlook 2024 https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/a9e3544b-0b12-4e15-b407-65f5c8ce1b5f/GlobalEVOutlook2024.pdf (International Energy Agency, 2024).
Battery Report 2023 https://volta.foundation/battery-report (Volta Foundation, 2023).
Yu, L., Bai, Y., Polzin, B. & Belharouak, I. Unlocking the value of recycling scrap from Li-ion battery manufacturing: challenges and outlook. J. Power Sources 593, 233955 (2024).
Google Scholar
Ma, X., Azhari, L. & Wang, Y. Li-ion battery recycling challenges. Chem 7, 2843–2847 (2021).
Google Scholar
Yang, S.-Y. et al. Influence of pretreatment process on structure, morphology and electrochemical properties of Li(Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3)O2 cathode material. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 21, 1995–2001 (2011).
Google Scholar
Kim, S. et al. A comprehensive review on the pretreatment process in lithium-ion battery recycling. J. Clean Prod. 294, 126329 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mao, J. et al. Toward practical lithium-ion battery recycling: adding value, tackling circularity and recycling-oriented design. Energy Environ. Sci. 15, 2732–2752 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhu, A. et al. The application of deep eutectic solvents in lithium-ion battery recycling: a comprehensive review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 188, 106690 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zhang, J. & Azimi, G. Recycling of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese from end-of-life lithium-ion battery of an electric vehicle using supercritical carbon dioxide. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 187, 106628 (2022).
Google Scholar
Jegan Roy, J., Srinivasan, M. & Cao, B. Bioleaching as an eco-friendly approach for metal recovery from spent NMC-based lithium-ion batteries at a high pulp density. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 3060–3069 (2021).
Google Scholar
Harper, G. D. J. et al. Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies. J. Phys. Energy 5, 021501 (2023).
Google Scholar
Han, Y., Bedrossian, S., Fraser, R., Bellino, M. & Bibienne, T. Lithium-ion batteries recycling trends and pathways: a comparison. in Proc. 62nd Conference of Metallurgists 197–203 (Springer Nature, 2023).
Sommerville, R., Shaw-Stewart, J., Goodship, V., Rowson, N. & Kendrick, E. A review of physical processes used in the safe recycling of lithium ion batteries. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 25, e00197 (2020).
Google Scholar
Makuza, B., Tian, Q., Guo, X., Chattopadhyay, K. & Yu, D. Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: a comprehensive review. J. Power Sources 491, 229622 (2021).
Google Scholar
Thompson, D. et al. To shred or not to shred: a comparative techno-economic assessment of lithium ion battery hydrometallurgical recycling retaining value and improving circularity in LIB supply chains. Resour. Conserv. Recyc. 175, 105741 (2021).
Google Scholar
Christensen, P. A. et al. Risk management over the life cycle of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 148, 111240 (2021).
Google Scholar
Harper, G. et al. Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Nature 575, 75–86 (2019).
Google Scholar
Rastegarpanah, A. et al. Towards robotizing the processes of testing lithium-ion batteries. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part. I 235, 1309–1325 (2021).
Behnamgol, V., Asadi, M., Mohamed, M. A. A., Aphale, S. S. & Faraji Niri, M. Comprehensive review of lithium-ion battery state of charge estimation by sliding mode observers. Energies 17, 5754 (2024).
Google Scholar
Shi, M. et al. Current situation and development prospects of discharge pretreatment during recycling of lithium-ion batteries: a review. Batter. Supercaps 7, e202300477 (2024).
Google Scholar
Harper, G. D. J. Upcycle for enhanced performance. Nat. Sustain. 6, 725–726 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lei, C. et al. Lithium ion battery recycling using high-intensity ultrasonication. Green Chem. 23, 4710–4715 (2021).
Google Scholar
Wegener, K., Chen, W. H., Dietrich, F., Dröder, K. & Kara, S. Robot assisted disassembly for the recycling of electric vehicle batteries. Proc. CIRP 29, 716–721 (2015).
Google Scholar
Glöser-Chahoud, S. et al. Industrial disassembling as a key enabler of circular economy solutions for obsolete electric vehicle battery systems. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 174, 105735 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mulcahy, K. R., Kilpatrick, A. F. R., Harper, G. D. J., Walton, A. & Abbott, A. P. Debondable adhesives and their use in recycling. Green Chem. 24, 36–61 (2022).
Google Scholar
Thompson, D. L. et al. The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling — a critical review. Green Chem. 22, 7585–7603 (2020).
Google Scholar
Assefi, M., Maroufi, S., Yamauchi, Y. & Sahajwalla, V. Pyrometallurgical recycling of Li-ion, Ni–Cd and Ni–MH batteries: a minireview. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 24, 26–31 (2020).
Google Scholar
Liu, F. et al. Synergistic recovery of valuable metals from spent nickel–metal hydride batteries and lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 16103–16111 (2019).
Google Scholar
Wang, J. et al. Toward direct regeneration of spent lithium-ion batteries: a next-generation recycling method. Chem. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00884 (2024).
Windisch-Kern, S., Holzer, A., Ponak, C. & Raupenstrauch, H. Pyrometallurgical lithium-ion-battery recycling: approach to limiting lithium slagging with the indured reactor concept. Processes 9, 1–15 (2021).
Google Scholar
Brückner, L., Frank, J. & Elwert, T. Industrial recycling of lithium-ion batteries — a critical review of metallurgical process routes. Metals 10, 1107 (2020).
Google Scholar
Pan, C. & Shen, Y. Pyrometallurgical recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries from conventional roasting to synergistic pyrolysis with organic wastes. J. Energy Chem. 85, 547–561 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ji, H., Wang, J., Ma, J., Cheng, H.-M. & Zhou, G. Fundamentals, status and challenges of direct recycling technologies for lithium ion batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3CS00254C (2023).
Huang, B., Pan, Z., Su, X. & An, L. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: recent advances and perspectives. J. Power Sources 399, 274–286 (2018).
Google Scholar
Ren, G.-X. et al. Recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium ion batteries by smelting reduction process based on FeO–SiO2–Al2O3 slag system. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 27, 450–456 (2017).
Google Scholar
Joulié, M., Billy, E., Laucournet, R. & Meyer, D. Current collectors as reducing agent to dissolve active materials of positive electrodes from Li-ion battery wastes. Hydrometallurgy 169, 426–432 (2017).
Google Scholar
Ghassa, S., Farzanegan, A., Gharabaghi, M. & Abdollahi, H. Iron scrap, a sustainable reducing agent for waste lithium ions batteries leaching: an environmentally friendly method to treating waste with waste. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 166, 105348 (2021).
Google Scholar
Windisch-Kern, S., Holzer, A., Ponak, C., Hochsteiner, T. & Raupenstrauch, H. Thermal analysis of lithium ion battery cathode materials for the development of a novel pyrometallurgical recycling approach. Carbon Resour. Convers. 4, 184–189 (2021).
Google Scholar
Nieto-Arango, E. et al. Pyrometallurgical reduction of manganese-rich black mass from discarded batteries using charcoal. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 26, 307–317 (2024).
Google Scholar
Liu, P. et al. Study on the reduction roasting of spent LiNixCoyMnzO2 lithium-ion battery cathode materials. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 136, 1323–1332 (2019).
Google Scholar
Zhang, G. et al. Recycling of valuable metals from spent cathode material by organic pyrolysis combined with in-situ thermal reduction. J. Hazard. Mater. 430, 128374 (2022).
Google Scholar
Fan, E. et al. Low-temperature molten-salt-assisted recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 16144–16150 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lin, J. et al. Environmentally benign process for selective recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries by using conventional sulfation roasting. Green Chem. 21, 5904–5913 (2019).
Google Scholar
Shi, J. et al. Sulfation roasting mechanism for spent lithium-ion battery metal oxides under SO2–O2–Ar atmosphere. JOM 71, 4473–4482 (2019).
Google Scholar
Peng, C., Liu, F., Wang, Z., Wilson, B. P. & Lundström, M. Selective extraction of lithium (Li) and preparation of battery grade lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) from spent Li-ion batteries in nitrate system. J. Power Sources 415, 179–188 (2019).
Google Scholar
Zhou, M., Li, B., Li, J. & Xu, Z. Pyrometallurgical technology in the recycling of a spent lithium ion battery: evolution and the challenge. ACS EST. Eng. 1, 1369–1382 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lin, J. et al. Conversion mechanisms of selective extraction of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries by sulfation roasting. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 18482–18489 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zhang, X. et al. Recovery valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries via a low-temperature roasting approach: thermodynamics and conversion mechanism. J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 1, 100003 (2021).
Google Scholar
Di, C. et al. in Energy Technology 2020: Recycling, Carbon Dioxide Management, and Other Technologies (eds Chen, X. et al.) 387–395 (Springer International, 2020).
Zhu, X.-H. et al. Recycling valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries using carbothermal shock method. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62, e202300074 (2023).
Google Scholar
Liu, C., Lin, J., Cao, H., Zhang, Y. & Sun, Z. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of lithium recovery: a critical review. J. Clean Prod. 228, 801–813 (2019).
Google Scholar
Gaines, L. Lithium-ion battery recycling processes: research towards a sustainable course. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 17, e00068 (2018).
Google Scholar
Pinna, E. G., Ruiz, M. C., Ojeda, M. W. & Rodriguez, M. H. Cathodes of spent Li-ion batteries: dissolution with phosphoric acid and recovery of lithium and cobalt from leach liquors. Hydrometallurgy 167, 66–71 (2017).
Google Scholar
Chen, X. et al. Hydrometallurgical recovery of metal values from sulfuric acid leaching liquor of spent lithium-ion batteries. Waste Manag. 38, 349–356 (2015).
Google Scholar
Zhang, P., Yokoyama, T., Itabashi, O., Suzuki, T. M. & Inoue, K. Hydrometallurgical process for recovery of metal values from spent lithium-ion secondary batteries. Hydrometallurgy 47, 259–271 (1998).
Google Scholar
Yu, L., Bai, Y., Essehli, R., Bisht, A. & Belharouak, I. Efficient separation and coprecipitation for simplified cathode recycling. Energy Storage Mater. 63, 103025 (2023).
Google Scholar
Chen, X., Li, J., Kang, D., Zhou, T. & Ma, H. A novel closed-loop process for the simultaneous recovery of valuable metals and iron from a mixed type of spent lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 21, 6342–6352 (2019).
Google Scholar
Shin, E. J. et al. A green recycling process designed for LiFePO4 cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 11493–11502 (2015).
Google Scholar
Barik, S. P., Prabaharan, G. & Kumar, L. Leaching and separation of Co and Mn from electrode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries using hydrochloric acid: laboratory and pilot scale study. J. Clean Prod. 147, 37–43 (2017).
Google Scholar
Guimarães, L. F., Botelho Junior, A. B. & Espinosa, D. C. R. Sulfuric acid leaching of metals from waste Li-ion batteries without using reducing agent. Miner. Eng. 183, 107597 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, K., Zhang, G., Luo, M. & Zeng, M. Separation of Co and Mn from acetic acid leaching solution of spent lithium-ion battery by Cyanex272. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 10, 108250 (2022).
Google Scholar
Li, Y. et al. Improving extraction performance of D2EHPA for impurities removal from spent lithium-ion batteries leaching solution by TPC(4). ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 10, 4312–4322 (2022).
Google Scholar
Chen, W.-S. & Ho, H.-J. Recovery of valuable metals from lithium-ion batteries NMC cathode waste materials by hydrometallurgical methods. Metals https://doi.org/10.3390/met8050321 (2018).
Akhmetov, N., Manakhov, A. & Al-Qasim, A. S. Li-ion battery cathode recycling: an emerging response to growing metal demand and accumulating battery waste. Electronics 12, 1152 (2023).
Google Scholar
Keller, A., Hlawitschka, M. W. & Bart, H. J. Manganese recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries via solvent extraction. Sep. Purif. Technol. 275, 119166 (2021).
Google Scholar
Joulié, M., Laucournet, R. & Billy, E. Hydrometallurgical process for the recovery of high value metals from spent lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide based lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 247, 551–555 (2014).
Google Scholar
Gu, S., Zhang, L., Fu, B., Wang, X. & Ahn, J. W. Feasible route for the recovery of strategic metals from mixed lithium-ion batteries cathode materials by precipitation and carbonation. Chem. Eng. J. 420, 127561 (2021).
Google Scholar
Cai, G., Fung, K. Y., Ng, K. M. & Wibowo, C. Process development for the recycle of spent lithium ion batteries by chemical precipitation. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53, 18245–18259 (2014).
Google Scholar
Swain, B. Recovery and recycling of lithium: a review. Sep. Purif. Technol. 172, 388–403 (2017).
Google Scholar
Lupi, C., Pasquali, M. & Dell’Era, A. Nickel and cobalt recycling from lithium-ion batteries by electrochemical processes. Waste Manag. 25, 215–220 (2005).
Google Scholar
Li, S. et al. Novel electrochemically driven and internal circulation process for valuable metals recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries. Waste Manag. 136, 18–27 (2021).
Google Scholar
Li, L., Chen, R., Sun, F., Wu, F. & Liu, J. Preparation of LiCoO2 films from spent lithium-ion batteries by a combined recycling process. Hydrometallurgy 108, 220–225 (2011).
Google Scholar
Tao, Y., Wang, Z., Wu, B., Tang, Y. & Evans, S. Environmental life cycle assessment of recycling technologies for ternary lithium-ion batteries. J. Clean Prod. 389, 136008 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zhao, H., Zuo, H., Wang, J. & Jiao, S. Practical application of graphite in lithium-ion batteries: modification, composite, and sustainable recycling. J. Energy Storage 98, 113125 (2024).
Google Scholar
Li, Y. et al. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of green chemistry. Green Chem. 23, 6139–6171 (2021).
Google Scholar
Iturrondobeitia, M. et al. Environmental impact assessment of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 hydrometallurgical cathode recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 10, 9798–9810 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, J. & Guo, Z. in Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Processing Methods and Environmental Impacts (ed. An, L.) 27–55 (Springer International, 2019).
Asadi Dalini, E., Karimi, G., Zandevakili, S. & Goodarzi, M. A review on environmental, economic and hydrometallurgical processes of recycling spent lithium-ion batteries. Miner. Process. Extractive Metall. Rev. 42, 451–472 (2021).
Google Scholar
Noudeng, V., Quan, N. V. & Xuan, T. D. A future perspective on waste management of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles in Lao PDR: current status and challenges. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 19, 16169 (2022).
Google Scholar
Hou, J. et al. A green closed-loop process for selective recycling of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 24, 7049–7060 (2022).
Google Scholar
Punt, T., Bradshaw, S. M., van Wyk, P. & Akdogan, G. The efficiency of black mass preparation by discharge and alkaline leaching for LIB recycling. Minerals 12, 753 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, C. et al. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: selective ammonia leaching of valuable metals and simultaneous synthesis of high-purity manganese carbonate. Waste Manag. 114, 253–262 (2020).
Google Scholar
Chen, L. et al. Process for the recovery of cobalt oxalate from spent lithium-ion batteries. Hydrometallurgy 108, 80–86 (2011).
Google Scholar
Ferreira, D. A., Prados, L. M. Z., Majuste, D. & Mansur, M. B. Hydrometallurgical separation of aluminium, cobalt, copper and lithium from spent Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 187, 238–246 (2009).
Google Scholar
Hu, C., Guo, J., Wen, J. & Peng, Y. Preparation and electrochemical performance of nano-Co3O4 anode materials from spent Li-ion batteries for lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 29, 215–220 (2013).
Google Scholar
Chen, M. et al. Recycling end-of-life electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries. Joule 3, 2622–2646 (2019).
Google Scholar
He, B. et al. A comprehensive review of lithium-ion battery (LiB) recycling technologies and industrial market trend insights. Recycling 9, 9 (2024).
Google Scholar
Davis, K. & Demopoulos, G. P. Hydrometallurgical recycling technologies for NMC Li-ion battery cathodes: current industrial practice and new R&D trends. RSC Sustain. 1, 1932–1951 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ornes, S. How to recycle an EV battery. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2400520121 (2024).
Google Scholar
Liu, Y., Deng, H., Gratz, E. & Wang, Y. Hydro-to-cathodeTM customizable cathode materials made from recycled elements. ECS Meet. Abstr. MA2022-02, 342 (2022).
Google Scholar
Yao, Y. et al. Hydrometallurgical processes for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: a critical review. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 13611–13627 (2018).
Google Scholar
Wei, G. et al. Direct recycling of spent Li-ion batteries: challenges and opportunities toward practical applications. iScience 26, 107676 (2023).
Google Scholar
Li, J. et al. Water-based electrode manufacturing and direct recycling of lithium-ion battery electrodes — a green and sustainable manufacturing system. iScience 23, 101081 (2020).
Google Scholar
Li, X., Zhang, J., Song, D., Song, J. & Zhang, L. Direct regeneration of recycled cathode material mixture from scrapped LiFePO4 batteries. J. Power Sources 345, 78–84 (2017).
Google Scholar
Xu, P. et al. Efficient direct recycling of lithium-ion battery cathodes by targeted healing. Joule 4, 2609–2626 (2020).
Google Scholar
Chen, Q., Huang, L., Liu, J., Luo, Y. & Chen, Y. A new approach to regenerate high-performance graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries. Carbon 189, 293–304 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, H. et al. Reclaiming graphite from spent lithium ion batteries ecologically and economically. Electrochim. Acta 313, 423–431 (2019).
Google Scholar
Natarajan, S., Subramanyan, K., Dhanalakshmi, R. B., Stephan, A. M. & Aravindan, V. Regeneration of polyolefin separators from spent li-ion battery for second life. Batteries Supercaps 3, 581–586 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zhu, P. et al. Direct reuse of aluminium and copper current collectors from spent lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 25, 3503–3514 (2023).
Google Scholar
Fu, Y., Schuster, J., Petranikova, M. & Ebin, B. Innovative recycling of organic binders from electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 172, 105666 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zhang, R., Shi, X., Esan, O. C. & An, L. Organic electrolytes recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries. Glob. Chall. 6, 2200050 (2022).
Google Scholar
Liu, G. et al. Controllable long-term lithium replenishment for enhancing energy density and cycle life of lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 1163–1174 (2024).
Google Scholar
Shi, Y., Chen, G. & Chen, Z. Effective regeneration of LiCoO2 from spent lithium-ion batteries: a direct approach towards high-performance active particles. Green Chem. 20, 851–862 (2018).
Google Scholar
Ma, J. et al. Adaptable eutectic salt for the direct recycling of highly degraded layer cathodes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 144, 20306–20314 (2022).
Google Scholar
Jiang, G. et al. Direct regeneration of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode from spent lithium-ion batteries by the molten salts method. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 18138–18147 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zhang, L., Xu, Z. & He, Z. Electrochemical relithiation for direct regeneration of LiCoO2 materials from spent lithium-ion battery electrodes. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 11596–11605 (2020).
Google Scholar
Shi, Y., Chen, G., Liu, F., Yue, X. & Chen, Z. Resolving the compositional and structural defects of degraded LiNixCoyMnzO2 particles to directly regenerate high-performance lithium-ion battery cathodes. ACS Energy Lett. 3, 1683–1692 (2018).
Google Scholar
Wang, T. et al. Direct recycling of spent NCM cathodes through ionothermal lithiation. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2001204 (2020).
Google Scholar
Tang, L. et al. Monitoring the morphology evolution of LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 during high-temperature solid state synthesis via in situ SEM. J. Energy Chem. 66, 9–15 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhou, H., Zhao, X., Yin, C. & Li, J. Regeneration of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 291, 142 (2018).
Google Scholar
Ji, G. et al. Direct regeneration of degraded lithium-ion battery cathodes with a multifunctional organic lithium salt. Nat. Commun. 14, 584 (2023).
Google Scholar
Xu, P. et al. A materials perspective on direct recycling of lithium-ion batteries: principles, challenges and opportunities. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2213168 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ma, X. et al. Direct upcycling of mixed Ni-lean polycrystals to single-crystal Ni-rich cathode materials. Chem 8, 1944–1955 (2022).
Google Scholar
Deng, B., Zhou, Z., Wang, W. & Wang, D. Direct recovery and efficient reutilization of degraded ternary cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries via a homogeneous thermochemical process. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 14022–14029 (2020).
Google Scholar
Xing, X. et al. A facile eutectic mixed molten salt method for synthesizing LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode material for lithium-ion batteries. Colloids Surf. A https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.133376 (2024).
Shi, Y., Zhang, M., Meng, Y. S. & Chen, Z. Ambient-pressure relithiation of degraded LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (0 < x < 1) via eutectic solutions for direct regeneration of lithium-ion battery cathodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 9, 1900454 (2019).
Google Scholar
Yang, J., Wang, W., Yang, H. & Wang, D. One-pot compositional and structural regeneration of degraded LiCoO2 for directly reusing it as a high-performance lithium-ion battery cathode. Green Chem. 22, 6489–6496 (2020).
Google Scholar
Yang, H., Deng, B., Jing, X., Li, W. & Wang, D. Direct recovery of degraded LiCoO2 cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries: efficient impurity removal toward practical applications. Waste Manag. 129, 85–94 (2021).
Google Scholar
Yang, T. et al. An effective relithiation process for recycling lithium-ion battery cathode materials. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 4, 1900088 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zhou, S. et al. Direct recovery of scrapped LiFePO4 by a green and low-cost electrochemical re-lithiation method. Green Chem. 24, 6278–6286 (2022).
Google Scholar
Yu, X. et al. Achieving low-temperature hydrothermal relithiation by redox mediation for direct recycling of spent lithium-ion battery cathodes. Energy Storage Mater. 51, 54–62 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhan, L., Jiang, L., Zhang, Y., Gao, B. & Xu, Z. Reduction, detoxification and recycling of solid waste by hydrothermal technology: a review. Chem. Eng. J. 390, 124651 (2020).
Google Scholar
Chan, K. H., Malik, M. & Azimi, G. Direct recycling of degraded lithium-ion batteries of an electric vehicle using hydrothermal relithiation. Mater. Today Energy 37, 101374 (2023).
Google Scholar
Cao, Y. et al. A review of direct recycling methods for spent lithium-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 70, 103475 (2024).
Google Scholar
Herzog, M. J., Esken, D. & Janek, J. Improved cycling performance of high-nickel NMC by dry powder coating with nanostructured fumed Al2O3, TiO2, and ZrO2: a comparison. Batteries Supercaps 4, 1003–1017 (2021).
Google Scholar
Cheng, J., Fong, K. D. & Persson, K. A. Materials design principles of amorphous cathode coatings for lithium-ion battery applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 10, 22245–22256 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zou, L. et al. Lattice doping regulated interfacial reactions in cathode for enhanced cycling stability. Nat. Commun. 10, 3447 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lee, S., Su, L., Mesnier, A., Cui, Z. & Manthiram, A. Cracking vs. surface reactivity in high-nickel cathodes for lithium-ion batteries. Joule 7, 2430–2444 (2023).
Google Scholar
Li, J. et al. Regenerating of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. science. Mater. Electron. 29, 17661–17669 (2018).
Google Scholar
Meng, X. et al. Recycling of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using mechanochemical activation and solid-state sintering. Waste Manag. 84, 54–63 (2019).
Google Scholar
Shin, Y. et al. A comprehensive review on the recovery of cathode active materials via direct recycling from spent Li-ion batteries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 187, 113693 (2023).
Google Scholar
Folayan, T.-O., Zhan, R., Huang, K. & Pan, L. Improved separation between recycled anode and cathode materials from Li-ion batteries using coarse flake particle flotation. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 11, 2917–2926 (2023).
Google Scholar
Al-Shammari, H. & Farhad, S. Heavy liquids for rapid separation of cathode and anode active materials from recycled lithium-ion batteries. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 174, 105749 (2021).
Google Scholar
Folayan, T.-O. et al. Direct recycling of blended cathode materials by froth flotation. Energy Technol. https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202100468 (2021).
Ahmed, S., Nelson, P. A., Gallagher, K. G., Susarla, N. & Dees, D. W. Cost and energy demand of producing nickel manganese cobalt cathode material for lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 342, 733–740 (2017).
Google Scholar
Gaines, L., Dai, Q., Vaughey, J. T. & Gillard, S. Direct recycling R&D at the ReCell Center. Recycling https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020031 (2021).
Ma, X., Chen, M., Chen, B., Meng, Z. & Wang, Y. High-performance graphite recovered from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 19732–19738 (2019).
Google Scholar
Qian, G. et al. Value-creating upcycling of retired electric vehicle battery cathodes. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3, 100741 (2022).
Google Scholar
Xing, C., Yao, M. & Fei, L. Upcycling degraded layered oxide cathodes from spent lithium-ion batteries toward emerging materials: a review. Energy Storage Mater. 71, 103636 (2024).
Google Scholar
Wang, T. et al. Flux upcycling of spent NMC 111 to nickel-rich NMC cathodes in reciprocal ternary molten salts. iScience 25, 103801 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhou, J. et al. Direct upcycling of leached FePO4 from spent lithium-ion batteries toward gradient-doped LiMnxFe1−xPO4 cathode material. Adv. Energy Mater. 14, 2302761 (2024).
Google Scholar
Xiao, X. et al. Cathode regeneration and upcycling of spent LIBs: toward sustainability. Energy Environ. Sci. 16, 2856–2868 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ma, X. et al. Recycled cathode materials enabled superior performance for lithium-ion batteries. Joule 5, 2955–2970 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zou, H., Gratz, E., Apelian, D. & Wang, Y. A novel method to recycle mixed cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. Green Chem. 15, 1183–1191, (2013).
Google Scholar
Gratz, E., Sa, Q., Apelian, D. & Wang, Y. A closed loop process for recycling spent lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 262, 255–262 (2014).
Google Scholar
Zheng, Z. et al. High performance cathode recovery from different electric vehicle recycling streams. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 13977–13982 (2018).
Google Scholar
Sa, Q. et al. Synthesis of diverse LiNixMnyCozO2 cathode materials from lithium ion battery recovery stream. J. Sustain. Metall. 2, 248–256 (2016).
Google Scholar
Chen, M. et al. Closed loop recycling of electric vehicle batteries to enable ultra-high quality cathode powder. Sci. Rep. 9, 1654 (2019).
Google Scholar
Liu, P. et al. Resynthesis and electrochemical performance of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 from spent cathode material of lithium-ion batteries. Vacuum 156, 317–324 (2018).
Google Scholar
Liu, P., Yang, X., Xiao, L., Chen, H. & Chen, H. Preparation of ternary precursor derived from spent LiNixCoyMn1−x−yO2 materials. JOM 71, 4492–4499 (2019).
Google Scholar
Ji, G. et al. Sustainable upcycling of mixed spent cathodes to a high-voltage polyanionic cathode material. Nat. Commun. 15, 4086 (2024).
Google Scholar
Kim, W., Park, S., Ko, G., Lee, J. & Kwon, K. Optimizing pH conditions for impurity removal in closed-loop Li-ion battery recycling. Chem. Eng. J. 475, 146121 (2023).
Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Gratz, E., Sa, Q., Zheng, Z. & Heelan, J. Method and apparatus for recycling lithium-ion batteries. US patent US10522884B2 (2016).
Roy, J. J. et al. Green recycling methods to treat lithium-ion batteries e-waste: a circular approach to sustainability. Adv. Mater. 34, e2103346 (2022).
Google Scholar
Padwal, C. et al. Deep eutectic solvents: green approach for cathode recycling of Li‐ion batteries. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 3, 2100133 (2021).
Google Scholar
Wang, J. et al. Green recycling of spent Li-ion battery cathodes via deep-eutectic solvents. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 867–884 (2024).
Google Scholar
Han, Y. et al. Supercritical carbon dioxide technology in synthesis, modification, and recycling of battery materials. Carbon Neutraliz. 2, 169–185 (2023).
Google Scholar
Cattaneo, P., D’Aprile, F., Kapelyushko, V., Mustarelli, P. & Quartarone, E. Supercritical CO2 technology for the treatment of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries. RSC Sustain. 2, 1692–1707 (2024).
Google Scholar
Roy, J. J., Cao, B. & Madhavi, S. A review on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) by the bioleaching approach. Chemosphere 282, 130944–130944 (2021).
Google Scholar
Biswal, B. K. et al. Biological leaching and chemical precipitation methods for recovery of Co and Li from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 12343–12352 (2018).
Google Scholar
Mishra, D., Kim, D. J., Ralph, D. E., Ahn, J. G. & Rhee, Y. H. Bioleaching of metals from spent lithium ion secondary batteries using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. Waste Manag. 28, 333–338 (2008).
Google Scholar
Xin, Y. et al. Bioleaching of valuable metals Li, Co, Ni and Mn from spent electric vehicle Li-ion batteries for the purpose of recovery. J. Clean Prod. 116, 249–258 (2016).
Google Scholar
Heydarian, A., Mousavi, S. M., Vakilchap, F. & Baniasadi, M. Application of a mixed culture of adapted acidophilic bacteria in two-step bioleaching of spent lithium-ion laptop batteries. J. Power Sources 378, 19–30 (2018).
Google Scholar
Prabaharan, G., Barik, S. P., Kumar, N. & Kumar, L. Electrochemical process for electrode material of spent lithium ion batteries. Waste Manag. 68, 527–533 (2017).
Google Scholar
Kim, K., Raymond, D., Candeago, R. & Su, X. Selective cobalt and nickel electrodeposition for lithium-ion battery recycling through integrated electrolyte and interface control. Nat. Commun. 12, 6554 (2021).
Google Scholar
Yan, S., Sun, C., Zhou, T., Gao, R. & Xie, H. Ultrasonic-assisted leaching of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries using organic additives. Sep. Purif. Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117930 (2021).
Ning, P. et al. Recycling of cathode material from spent lithium ion batteries using an ultrasound-assisted DL-malic acid leaching system. Waste Manag. 103, 52–60 (2020).
Google Scholar
Jiang, F. et al. Ultrasound-assisted leaching of cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries. Ultrason. Sonochem. 48, 88–95 (2018).
Google Scholar
Wang, W.-Y., Yen, C. H. & Hsu, J.-K. Selective recovery of cobalt from the cathode materials of NMC type Li-ion battery by ultrasound-assisted acid leaching and microemulsion extraction. Sep. Sci. Technol. 55, 3028–3035 (2020).
Google Scholar
Liu, C. et al. Microwave low-temperature treatment — step leaching process for recovering black mass from spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 11, 109759 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zhao, Y., Liu, B., Zhang, L. & Guo, S. Microwave-absorbing properties of cathode material during reduction roasting for spent lithium-ion battery recycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 384, 121487–121487 (2020).
Google Scholar
Pindar, S. & Dhawan, N. Rapid recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries using microwave route. Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 147, 226–233 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zhuang, L., Sun, C., Zhou, T., Li, H. & Dai, A. Recovery of valuable metals from LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode materials of spent Li-ion batteries using mild mixed acid as leachant. Waste Manag. 85, 175–185 (2019).
Google Scholar
Dong, X. et al. Efficient photo-oxidation leaching of Ni and Co in a spent lithium-ion battery cathode by homogeneous UV/H2O2. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 11, 9330–9336 (2023).
Google Scholar
Men, L., Feng, S., Zhang, J., Luo, X. & Zhou, Y. A systematic review of efficient recycling for the cathode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries: process intensification technologies beyond traditional methods. Green Chem. 26, 1170–1193 (2024).
Google Scholar
Tong, Z., Ren, X., Ni, M., Bu, X. & Dong, L. Review of ultrasound-assisted recycling and utilization of cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries: state-of-the-art and outlook. Energy Fuels 37, 14574–14588 (2023).
Google Scholar
Stallmeister, C. & Friedrich, B. Holistic investigation of the inert thermal treatment of industrially shredded NMC 622 lithium-ion batteries and its influence on selective lithium recovery by water leaching. Metals https://doi.org/10.3390/met13122000 (2023).
Schwich, L., Schubert, T. & Friedrich, B. Early-stage recovery of lithium from tailored thermal conditioned black mass part I: mobilizing lithium via supercritical CO2-carbonation. Metals 11, 177 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zhang, G. et al. Selective recycling of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries by carbothermal reduction combined with multistage leaching. Sep. Purif. Technol. 314, 123555 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zhao, C. et al. Lithium carbonate recovery from lithium-containing solution by ultrasound assisted precipitation. Ultrason. Sonochem. 52, 484–492 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lv, W. et al. Selective recovery of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries by coupling advanced oxidation processes and chemical leaching processes. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 5165–5174 (2020).
Google Scholar
Rostami, T. & Khoshandam, B. Metals recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries cathode via hydrogen reduction-water leaching-carbothermic or hydrogen reduction process. Min. Metall. Explor. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-024-00988-2 (2024).
Park, J. S., Seo, S., Han, K., Lee, S. & Kim, M. J. A process using a thermal reduction for producing the battery grade lithium hydroxide from wasted black powder generated by cathode active materials manufacturing. J. Hazard. Mater. 448, 130952 (2023).
Google Scholar
Liu, X., Gao, Z., Cheng, J., Gong, J. & Wang, J. Research progress on preparation and purification of fluorine-containing chemicals in lithium-ion batteries. Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 41, 73–84 (2022).
Google Scholar
Tran, T. & Luong, V. T. in Lithium Process Chemistry (eds Chagnes, A. & Światowska, J.) 81–124 (Elsevier, 2015).
Yang, L. et al. Electrochemical recovery and high value-added reutilization of heavy metal ions from wastewater: recent advances and future trends. Environ. Int. 152, 106512 (2021).
Google Scholar
Hu, F. et al. High purity nickel recovery from an industrial sidestream using concentration and liquid–liquid extraction techniques. JOM 72, 831–838 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kursunoglu, S., Ichlas, Z. T. & Kaya, M. Solvent extraction process for the recovery of nickel and cobalt from Caldag laterite leach solution: the first bench scale study. Hydrometallurgy 169, 135–141 (2017).
Google Scholar
Jha, A. K. et al. Selective separation and recovery of cobalt from leach liquor of discarded Li-ion batteries using thiophosphinic extractant. Sep. Purif. Technol. 104, 160–166 (2013).
Google Scholar
Nasser, O. A. & Petranikova, M. Review of achieved purities after Li-ion batteries hydrometallurgical treatment and impurities effects on the cathode performance. Batteries 7, 60 (2021).
Google Scholar
Natarajan, S. & Aravindan, V. An urgent call to spent LIB recycling: whys and wherefores for graphite recovery. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2002238 (2020).
Google Scholar
Liu, J. et al. Critical strategies for recycling process of graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries: a review. Sci. Total. Environ. 816, 151621 (2022).
Google Scholar
Li, Y.-f, Zhu, S.-f & Wang, L. Purification of natural graphite by microwave assisted acid leaching. Carbon 55, 377–378 (2013).
Google Scholar
Chen, W. et al. Flash recycling of graphite anodes. Adv. Mater. 35, 2207303 (2023).
Google Scholar
Xiao, H. et al. Efficient regeneration and reutilization of degraded graphite as advanced anode for lithium-ion batteries. J. Alloy. Compd. 888, 161593 (2021).
Google Scholar
Niu, B., Xu, Z., Xiao, J. & Qin, Y. Recycling hazardous and valuable electrolyte in spent lithium-ion batteries: urgency, progress, challenge, and viable approach. Chem. Rev. 123, 8718–8735 (2023).
Google Scholar
Grützke, M. et al. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of lithium-ion battery electrolytes. J. Supercrit. Fluids 94, 216–222 (2014).
Google Scholar
Wang, J. et al. High-value utilization of recovered LiPF6 from retired lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 26, 2162–2169 (2024).
Google Scholar
Wang, W., Chen, W. & Liu, H. Hydrometallurgical preparation of lithium carbonate from lithium-rich electrolyte. Hydrometallurgy 185, 88–92 (2019).
Google Scholar
He, K., Zhang, Z.-Y., Alai, L. & Zhang, F.-S. A green process for exfoliating electrode materials and simultaneously extracting electrolyte from spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Hazard. Mater. 375, 43–51 (2019).
Google Scholar
Arshad, F. et al. A comprehensive review of the advancement in recycling the anode and electrolyte from spent lithium ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 13527–13554 (2020).
Google Scholar
Sarkar, A., May, R., Ramesh, S., Chang, W. & Marbella, L. E. Recovery and reuse of composite cathode binder in lithium ion batteries. ChemistryOpen 10, 545–552 (2021).
Google Scholar
Sloop, S. et al. A direct recycling case study from a lithium-ion battery recall. Sustain. Mater. Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2020.e00152 (2020).
Driscoll, L. L. et al. Phase-selective recovery and regeneration of end-of-life electric vehicle blended cathodes via selective leaching and direct recycling. Joule https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2024.07.001 (2024).
Google Scholar
Zanoletti, A., Carena, E., Ferrara, C. & Bontempi, E. A review of lithium-ion battery recycling: technologies, sustainability, and open issues. Batteries 10, 38 (2024).
Google Scholar
Wagner-Wenz, R. et al. Recycling routes of lithium-ion batteries: a critical review of the development status, the process performance, and life-cycle environmental impacts. MRS Energy Sustain. 10, 1–34 (2023).
Google Scholar
Baum, Z. J., Bird, R. E., Yu, X. & Ma, J. Lithium-ion battery recycling ─ overview of techniques and trends. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 712–719 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhang, Q. et al. Economical and ecofriendly lithium-ion battery recycling: material flow and energy flow. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12, 2511–2530 (2024).
Google Scholar
Banar, M., Öztürk, M., Evin, E. & Özkan, A. Comparison of waste lithium-ion batteries recycling methods by different decision making techniques. Environ. Res. Technol. 6, 226–241 (2023).
Google Scholar
Xu, P., Tan, D. H. S., Gao, H., Rose, S. & Chen, Z. in Encyclopedia of Energy Storage (ed. Cabeza, L. F.) 98–107 (Elsevier, 2022).
Matulka, R. The History of the Electric Car https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car (Department of Energy, 2014).
Beaudet, A., Larouche, F., Amouzegar, K., Bouchard, P. & Zaghib, K. Key challenges and opportunities for recycling electric vehicle battery materials. Sustainability 12, 5837 (2020).
Google Scholar
Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ee01701d-1d5c-4ba8-9df6-abeeac9de99a/GlobalCriticalMineralsOutlook2024.pdf (International Energy Agency, 2024).
Lander, L. et al. Financial viability of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling. iScience 24, 102787 (2021).
Google Scholar
Tankou, A., Bieker, G. & Hall, D. Scaling Up Reuse and Recycling of Electric Vehicle Batteries: Assessing Challenges and Policy Approaches. White Paper (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2023).
Erakca, M. et al. Closing gaps in LCA of lithium-ion batteries: LCA of lab-scale cell production with new primary data. J. Clean Prod. 384, 135510 (2023).
Google Scholar
Rosenberg, S. et al. Combining dynamic material flow analysis and life cycle assessment to evaluate environmental benefits of recycling — a case study for direct and hydrometallurgical closed-loop recycling of electric vehicle battery systems. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 198, 107145 (2023).
Google Scholar
Bai, Y. et al. Energy and environmental aspects in recycling lithium-ion batteries: concept of battery identity global passport. Mater. Today 41, 304–315 (2020).
Google Scholar
Liang, Z. et al. Hydrometallurgical recovery of spent lithium ion batteries: environmental strategies and sustainability evaluation. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 5750–5767 (2021).
Google Scholar
Neumann, J. et al. Recycling of lithium‐ion batteries — current state of the art, circular economy, and next generation recycling. Adv. Energy Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202102917 (2022).
Zhang, R. et al. Valence effects of Fe impurity for recovered LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 cathode materials. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 4, 10356–10367 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zhang, R. et al. Systematic study of Al impurity for NCM622 cathode materials. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 9875–9884 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zhang, R. et al. Understanding fundamental effects of Cu impurity in different forms for recovered LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 cathode materials. Nano Energy 78, 105214 (2020).
Google Scholar
Azhari, L., Bong, S., Ma, X. & Wang, Y. Recycling for all solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Matter 3, 1845–1861 (2020).
Google Scholar
Li, J., Zhang, H., Wang, H. & Zhang, B. Research progress on bioleaching recovery technology of spent lithium-ion batteries. Environ. Res. 238, 117145 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zhao, J. et al. Cathode electrolysis for the comprehensive recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 24, 6179–6188 (2022).
Google Scholar